THE ORIGINAL PEOPLE

Aboriginal people have lived in British Columbia for thousands of years. They were hunters and fishers who relied on the land and its many resources to provide everything they needed for their survival.

About 250 years ago the first Europeans arrived in British Columbia. They thought that they "discovered" the territory because no other explorers had been there before them. But British Columbia was already occupied by many different groups of people when the explorers arrived. They were the Aboriginal people, the ancient ancestors of the First Nations people who live in British Columbia today. More Aboriginal people lived in British Columbia in ancient times than in any other part of Canada.

These original people did not need to be discovered. They had been living in their territories for as long as anyone could remember.

Who were the original people? Where did they live? What was their life like in British Columbia before the Europeans arrived?

DIGGING UP THE PAST

Archaeologists have found evidence that people were living in British Columbia at least 10,500 years ago. This evidence consists of stone tools and spear points found buried in the ground at ancient hunting camps. The people who made these objects were big game hunters. They tracked down giant bison, moose, caribou and mountain sheep, killing them with stone spears. They ate the meat and used the skins to make tents and clothing. They were the distant ancestors of today's Aboriginal people.

As time passed the number of people living in British Columbia grew. They inhabited the valleys of the interior and the islands and inlets along the coast. Slowly they developed different languages and different ways of life. Over the years they evolved into the many Aboriginal groups that were present in British Columbia when the first explorers arrived.

PEOPLE OF THE COAST

The Aboriginal groups living along the seacoast followed a way of life that was different in many ways from groups living in the interior. On the coast the climate is mild and wet. Warm air blows in off the ocean and as it rises to cross the mountains it drops its load of moisture as rain. The BC coast is one of the wettest spots on earth. The moisture produces lush forests of cedar, spruce and hemlock trees. This is what is known as the coastal rain forest. It contains some of the tallest trees in the world.

The land on which the people lived had a strong influence on the way in which they lived. The rain forest provided the coastal people with everything they needed. They built large houses made from planks cut from the trees. They used the trunks of the trees to make their canoes, and bark and roots to weave clothing, mats, fishnets, rope and baskets. Today the people still use wood to carve the totem poles and masks that are such an important part of their culture.

On the coast, people lived by fishing, collecting shellfish and hunting seals and sea lions. Some even hunted the giant whales far from shore. Every spring a silvery fish called the eulachon swarms in huge numbers at the mouths of the rivers. These fish are very greasy. They provided fuel to burn for light, as well as oil to spread on food. When they dried, the eulachon burned just like a candle. The coastal people traded eulachon oil to other groups living in the interior.

The people of the coast were sea-going people. Sometimes they lived on islands. Their villages were always at the water's edge. They had no roads or wheeled vehicles. They traveled everywhere by water in their log canoes. These canoes were beautifully shaped, polished and decorated with designs and carvings. They were works of art, made by trained artisans.

During the winter the people lived in large villages of many houses. It was during the winter, when the weather was bad, that they socialized and carried on their dances and religious ceremonies. When better weather came in the spring, they moved to smaller camps to fish, hunt seal and gather shellfish. Sometimes these camps were built atop middens. Middens are piles of discarded clam and oyster shells many metres deep. Archaeologists dig into the middens and discover evidence that people have used them for thousands of years.

PEOPLE OF THE INTERIOR

In the interior of British Columbia, Aboriginal groups lived a different kind of life. Here the climate was drier. It was much colder in the winter, and hotter in the summer. The people lived in small groups of one or two families. They moved around a lot, pursuing the deer, moose and caribou on which they depended for food.

In the interior, people lived in lodges made from animals skins, or sometimes in pit houses. Pit houses began with a shallow hole dug in the ground. A frame of poles was erected over the hole and covered with animal skins or dirt. The entrance was through the roof. This made a cosy shelter that kept the people warm in the winter.

Salmon was an important food for people in the interior. Salmon are born in the freshwater streams of the interior, then follow the rivers out to the sea. They remain in the oceans until it is time for them to return to fresh water to spawn near the same spot where they were born. As they made their way up the rivers of the interior, the Aboriginal people caught them in nets or speared them at the rapids. The people of the interior dried the salmon in the sun, or smoked them over open fires. Preserved in this way, the fish made a delicious meal all through the winter months.

During fishing season, the interior people came together in central villages. Here they met with their relatives, feasted and carried on important ceremonies. When the fishing was over, the people went away in smaller groups to hunt animals and to gather berries and roots.

NUU-CHAH-NULTH WHALERS

The Nuu-chah-nulth are a coastal people. For as long as anyone can remember, they have lived on the west coast of Vancouver Island. Like other coastal people, the Nuu-chah-nulth made their living from the sea. They fished for salmon and herring, hunted seals and sea lions, and gathered clams and oysters from the rocky shore. The meat and oil from these animals was stored for use during the winter months.

The Nuu-chah-nulth had a special skill. They were the only people on the coast to hunt whales. These giant animals swim past the coast of British Columbia on their way to and from their summer feeding grounds in Alaska. Standing on the beach, the Nuu-chah-nulth could see the whales splashing and blowing in the waves offshore.

The whale hunt required great courage and skill. Whalers enjoyed a special place in Nuu-chah-nulth society. They were usually chiefs who had spent years preparing themselves for the hunt. They learned the animal's habits and went through many rituals to try to influence the way it behaved. They bathed themselves in cold water, went for long periods without food, and sang special songs. They had to prove that they were worthy of matching themselves against the whale.

When they were ready, the members of a whaling crew climbed into their huge cedar canoe and set out into the open ocean. It was dangerous work. They would be gone for many days. A storm might blow up and overturn the canoe, or winds might carry them far from shore.

Once the whale was sighted, paddlers had to sneak up on it when it surfaced to take a breath. When they were almost on top of it, the chief thrust his long harpoon deep into the animal's back. Then the paddlers had to back away in a hurry. A wounded whale reacted with a violent slap of its tale, then dove below the surface to escape. If the canoe was too close, it could easily be swamped or smashed to pieces.

The chase was on. The harpoon was attached to the canoe by a long line. The fleeing whale pulled the hunters along behind it. They could do little but wait for the wounded animal to grow tired. When it came up for air, other harpoons were planted. Gradually the whale weakened from loss of blood until finally it died.

By this time the hunters might be far out to sea. They lashed the dead whale to the canoe and began the long paddle back to their village. It might take many days of hard labour. When finally they reached the beach, the whale was butchered and shared among all the people in the village. There was feasting and singing to thank the spirits for allowing the whale to be taken. The Nuu-chah-nulth believed that if the rituals were ignored they would be unsuccessful the next time they went hunting.

A single whale supplied tons of meat and oil for food, and bone to make tools and utensils. It was a way for hunters to show their skill and gain prestige in the village. All Nuu-chah-nulth respected a successful whaler.

MAKING CONTACT

The Haida were the first Aboriginal group in BC to meet with Europeans. This happened in 1774 when the Santiago, a small Spanish sailing ship, arrived near one of the Queen Charlotte Islands on a voyage of exploration. A canoe carrying nine Haida paddlers came out from shore to have a look at the strangers, then more canoes came out. The Haida brought food and furs to trade, but before the Spanish could land a wind blew the Santiago away from the coast.

Four years later, in 1778, more ships appeared on the coast, this time in the territory of the Nuu-chah-nulth people. Captain James Cook was exploring the Pacific coast for the King of England. He brought his two ships to Vancouver Island in search of a safe harbour and fresh water for his sailors.

When two people who were as different as the Nuu-chah-nulth and the explorers meet, they often do not understand each other. They are seeing so much for the first time. The Nuu-chah-nulth had not seen sailing ships before. They thought that the tall-masted vessels were floating houses. The British sailors did not understand the ceremonies that the Nuu-chah-nulth used to welcome visitors to their territory.

The Nuu-chah-nulth people used to be known as the Nootka. This name came from a misunderstanding on the part of Captain Cook and his crew. The story goes that Cook motioned in the air with his finger and asked what the area round about was called. The people thought he was asking sailing directions. They told him to sail around the island, using a word that sounded like nootka. Cook thought they were telling him that they were the Nootka. That is what he called them and so they were called for many years. Only recently have the people begun to use their own name: Nuu-chah-nulth.

NAMING PLACES

Nuu-chah-nulth is a difficult word to say. It means "all along the mountains". It refers to the territory where the people live, below the mountains on the coast of Vancouver Island.

Aboriginal people often take their names from physical features. Ucluelet is an important Nuu-chah-nulth village. It means "wind blowing into the bay". The village near where the people met Captain Cook became known as Friendly Cove. Its actual name is Yuquot, "where the wind blows from all directions". Wickaninish, one of the beaches on the coast, is named after a local chief and means "no one in front of him in the canoe". The name shows that he was the most important person in the community.

THE POTLATCH

For many Aboriginal groups in British Columbia, the potlatch was their most important ceremony. Potlatch comes from the Nuu-chah-nulth word patshatl, meaning "giving". It refers to the fact that gift giving is an important part of the potlatch. So are dancing, songs, feasts and storytelling.

The potlatch is at the heart of the Aboriginal way of life. A potlatch is held at important times in the life of the community and the individual. Some potlatches are held to celebrate weddings, or to mourn the dead. Others celebrate the raising of a totem pole, or the naming of a new chief.

In the old days, potlatches took a long time to prepare and lasted for several weeks. Nowadays they usually last for a day or two. Guests receive presents from the host before they return home. The presents are a token of thanks to the guests for attending the potlatch and witnessing the important ceremonies that took place.

When Europeans arrived in British Columbia, they did not understand the potlatch. They saw the Aboriginal people gathering together to give away their possessions and they thought it was wasteful and evil. They wanted the people to give up their old ways and become more like Europeans. In 1885, the government outlawed the potlatch. Anyone taking part in the ceremonies was sent to jail.

The ban on the potlatch lasted for 65 years. It was a great blow to Aboriginal culture. The ceremonies which were such an important part of their life could not be held. The people were known for their wood carving of masks and headdresses. Most of these carvings were made for the potlatch ceremonies. Since they were no longer needed, the arts of the Aboriginal people went into decline.

The law did not stop the potlatch altogether. The people continued to hold a few ceremonies in secret, but they had to break the law to do so. Finally the government decided that the law was unjust. In 1951, the potlatch again became legal. Today it continues to be an important ceremony among the Aboriginal people, and once again the arts of the people are flourishing.

TOTEM POLES

One of the most familiar parts of Aboriginal culture in British Columbia is the totem pole. These tall pillars of carved wood stood in front of the villages. They were made by skilled carvers from a single cedar log.

Totem poles depict figures from Aboriginal history and legend and important crests and designs from the owner's own family. Anyone who understands what the designs mean can read a pole like a book.

There were different kinds of poles. Some stood on the beach in front of the village to welcome visitors. Others stood in front of a house to show the family history. Still others stood in the graveyard to honour dead relations. In all cases, the poles had great significance for the people.

Young carvers learn their skills by studying as apprentices with older carvers. They learn techniques handed down through many generations. In this way the Aboriginal people keep their traditions strong.

STORYTELLERS

Long ago the Aboriginal people had no system of writing. Instead, they recorded their history and passed on their traditions in stories, songs and dances. Instead of reading books, an Aboriginal person learned by listening to the elders, watching the ceremonies and studying the objects made by artists.

Aboriginal art and stories often are about animals. The people believe that the way to learn about life is to study nature and learn from it. The lessons of nature are expressed in the art and ceremonies of the people.

Elders are very important people in Aboriginal society. They are respected advisors who use their knowledge and experience to guide the people. Elders keep alive the traditions of the people.

A NEW BEGINNING

The arrival of Europeans brought great changes to the Aboriginal world. The newcomers brought many things that were of value to Aboriginal people. Metal kettles, knives, guns and blankets were useful items that were quickly adopted by the people. In return they traded furs and food and shared their knowledge of what Europeans called the New World.

For many years life for the Aboriginal people went on much as before. The newcomers came from time to time in their ships, or set up small forts in the interior. The Aboriginal people traded with them from time to time, but their way of life did not change a great deal.

More and more outsiders arrived in British Columbia, however. They spread disease, used up the resources and threatened to take away the land. This presented a new challenge to the Aboriginal people. They had welcomed the newcomers into their land. Now they were learning to live with the consequences.

THE ARRIVAL OF THE TRADERS

Traders from many countries were attracted to British Columbia. They came in search of sea otter and beaver skins which the Aboriginal people offered in trade. The fur trade brought many changes for the Aboriginal people.

When Captain James Cook arrived near the village of Yuquot in 1778, some of his men traded with the Nuu-chah-nulth people who lived there. The sailors offered knives, blankets and metal tools. In return, they received food and furs.

After leaving the coast of British Columbia, Cook sailed his ships back across the Pacific Ocean to China. At the famous market city of Canton, his men sold their furs at a great profit. Chinese merchants were most impressed with the quality of the sea otter pelts. Thick and soft, they made the finest fur coats.

Before long word spread to other trading nations about the valuable furs. The result was a rush of ships to the coast of British Columbia.

IN SEARCH OF A PASSAGE

While the trade in furs flourished, exploration of the coast continued. The Spanish, who already owned Mexico to the south, hoped to expand into the north. The Russians were planning expeditions down from their posts in Alaska. And the British, thanks to Captain Cook's visit, thought that they had a claim on the area.

Into this confusing situation sailed Captain George Vancouver. He was one of the leading explorers in Great Britain. He came with orders to survey the coastline of North America between California and Alaska, and to enforce Britain's claim to ownership.

From 1792 to 1794 Vancouver and his men spent three summers on the coast. While their ship, the Discovery, waited offshore, they used smaller rowboats to look into every cove and inlet. The sailors sweated at the oars under the hot sun or through the driving rain. At night they camped in tents on the hard, rocky shore. It was exhausting work, but necessary. When they were finished, they had drawn the first accurate map of the British Columbia shoreline.

Meanwhile, the Russians withdrew from the coast, leaving the British and the Spanish to come to an agreement. Eventually the Spanish agreed to give up their claim. The two nations signed a treaty. Anyone could trade on the coast, but the area now belonged to Great Britain.

Of course, no one asked the Aboriginal people. As far as they were concerned the land belonged to them. After all, it had belonged to their ancestors for thousands of years. This different view of things continues right down to the present.

THE SEA OTTER TRADE

The traders came mainly from Great Britain and the United States. Each summer they sailed their small ships along the coast. When they came near a village, they sounded cannon to announce their arrival. The local Aboriginal people came out in canoes, bringing with them their furs to trade. When all the goods had been exchanged, the ship moved on to the next village. Before the autumn storms arrived, traders sailed across the Pacific to China where they bartered their furs for tea, silk and spices. These goods were much in demand in Europe.

The Aboriginal people were smart traders. They were used to trading among themselves and knew how to drive a hard bargain. They knew the goods they wanted, and how to haggle for the best price. At the height of the trade, vessels swarmed all over the coast. If one trader would not offer a fair price, the people could always wait for another vessel to come along.

The trade for sea otter pelts only lasted a few years. The demand was so high that thousands were slaughtered every year. By about 1820 so many of the animals had been killed that they were becoming hard to find. Sea-going traders were replaced by permanent trading posts. The focus of the fur trade shifted from the coastal villages to the rivers and lakes of the interior.

CROSSING THE CONTINENT

At the same time as the sea otter traders were cruising the coastal waters in their ships, other traders were trying to find a route to the Pacific by land. For many years they had been trading with the Aboriginal people of the Plains and the eastern woodlands. The Rocky Mountains, however, threw up an impassable barrier that kept the traders out of the interior of British Columbia.

The fur trade in the rest of Canada was dominated by two large companies. The Hudson's Bay Company, owned by British financiers, traded from the shores of Hudson Bay. The North West Company was based in Montreal. Both companies operated a network of trading posts across the continent. And both companies wanted to discover a way across the mountains to the Pacific.

The North West Company sent one of their most experienced traders to find a route to the ocean. His name was Alexander Mackenzie. With the help of Aboriginal guides, Mackenzie made his way on foot through the snow-bound mountain passes. He came down out of the mountains to a great river, what is now called the Fraser. The explorers set off by canoe to see where the river would take them.

GREASE TRAILS

The Aboriginal people knew British Columbia well. They followed a network of footpaths that led from the coast to the interior. Along these trails they carried food and other items for trade between the different tribes. One of the most important trade items was oil from the eulachon fish. Each year the eulachon swarm in huge numbers at the mouths of the major coastal rivers. The eulachon is very greasy, and the Aboriginal people used the oil as fuel for lighting and also as a food delicacy. People from the coast carried the oil to the interior where it was much in demand. This is why the trails they followed became known as "Grease Trails".

It was down one of the Grease Trails that the Aboriginal guides led Alexander Mackenzie all the way to the Pacific. On July 22, 1793, they reached the mouth of the Bella Coola River where it empties into the Pacific. This made Mackenzie the first European to cross North America from the East. Strangely enough, he arrived at the ocean by land just a few weeks after Captain Vancouver's men had arrived at exactly the same spot by sea.

Mackenzie paddled to a rock and used a mixture of grease and dye to write: “Alexander Mackenzie, from Canada, by land, the twenty-second of July, one thousand seven hundred and ninety-three.” Visitors to the place can still read the message scrawled on the rock. Today it is preserved as an historic site.

RIVER TO THE SEA

Other traders followed Mackenzie into the western mountains. In 1805, they established the first trading post west of the Rocky Mountains, at a place called McLeod Lake.

One of the traders, Simon Fraser, led another expedition in search of a route to the Pacific. The route followed by Mackenzie was too difficult. Fraser hoped to find an easier passage.

In 1808, Fraser and his men set off by canoe down the river that now bears his name. Once again they relied on Aboriginal guides to show them the way. It was a terrifying trip through steep canyons and over swirling rapids. He stopped at several villages along the way. At one of these, a place called Kumsheen, the people were so excited to see him that he had to shake hands with every person in the village.

At last Fraser and his group reached the mouth of the river, near a place called Musqueam. But once again the river had proved to be too dangerous for regular use by fur trade canoes. Another trader later said of it, “I consider the passage down the river to be certain death, in nine attempts out of ten.”

The riddle of the rivers was finally solved by a third explorer, David Thompson. In 1811, he traveled down the Columbia River to the ocean. Unlike the other rivers, the Columbia turned out to be safe and convenient. Traders began using it as the main corridor connecting the interior with the coast.

FUR TRADE IN NEW CALEDONIA

When Simon Fraser arrived in northern British Columbia he called the area New Caledonia. The lakes and hills of the interior reminded him of his mother's stories of her home in Scotland, also known as Caledonia. Other traders called this area "the Siberia of the fur trade" because it was so far from home and so cold in the winter.

Fraser and his men were Nor'westers. They belonged to the North West Company, one of the two giant trading companies that controlled the trade. In New Caledonia the Nor'westers had a monopoly. For many years their rivals from the Hudson's Bay Company did not follow them across the mountains.

The Nor'westers built a string of trading posts across the interior of New Caledonia. One of these posts is now the modern city of Prince George. Another, Fort St James, is an historic site where some of the original building still stands.

Most of the men who worked for the North West Company were French-Canadian voyageurs.Or they were Metis, a mix of French and Aboriginal. For this reason the working language of the fur trade in British Columbia at this time was French.

It was difficult and expensive to import food to feed the traders at their isolated posts. They grew a few vegetables, but for the most part they relied for their survival on the Aboriginal people who brought fish, deer meat, berries and other food.

Aboriginal hunters also supplied the furs on which the trade was based. Mostly the traders wanted beaver furs, used to make fancy hats in Europe. But they also took muskrat, marten, fox and bearskins. During the winter the Aboriginal people traveled to their hunting grounds in small family groups. In the spring they brought their furs to the post where they traded for tools, guns, blankets and cloth.

Every summer the voyageurs loaded their canoes with the furs they had traded and began their long trip east. They crossed the Rocky Mountains by one of the high passes and descended to one of the company's trading posts in Alberta. There they dropped off the furs and picked up more trade items to take back with them to New Caledonia. It was the fur trade that first tied British Columbia to the rest of Canada.

THE HUDSON'S BAY COMPANY

In 1821 the Hudson's Bay Company absorbed its longtime rival, the North West Company. As a result of the merger, the Hudson's Bay Company took over all the Nor'west posts in New Caledonia. From 1821 the fur trade belonged solely to the Bay Company.

One of the changes made by the HBC was to set up trading posts closer to the coast. The first of these was Fort Langley, built on the Fraser River in 1827. It was followed by Fort Simpson and Fort McLoughlin in the north.

A FUR TRADE LANGUAGE

When fur traders arrived on the coast they found many different Aboriginal groups speaking many different languages. The traders themselves spoke either French or English. In order for everyone to understand one another, people came up with a new language. It was called Chinook jargon.

Chinook jargon was mix of words—some English, some French, some Aboriginal, some entirely new. Anyone wanting to do business on the coast had to learn it. At one time Chinook jargon was spoken by a quarter of a million people. It died out with the end of the fur trade and now only a few people know it.

In Chinook jargon, tyeemeans chief; tillikum means friend; klahowyah means greetings, or hello; and cheechako means newcomer, or stranger. These are just a few of more than 700 words in this unique language.

ABORIGINAL PEOPLE AND THE FUR TRADE

Traders and Aboriginal people were partners in the fur business. Each needed the other. Traders supplied the Aboriginal people with goods they could not get elsewhere. Guns, kettles, blankets and needles were just some of the items the Aboriginal people came to value.

For their part, the Aboriginal people supplied the traders with valuable furs. As well, they guided the outsiders on their trips into the wilderness, and they provided food to the posts. The traders would not have been able to survive without the help of the Aboriginal people.

The fur trade did not lead to settlement. It required only a few posts scattered around the territory. The Aboriginal people did not have to fear that the traders were going to take their land.

Still, the fur trade did bring important changes for the Aboriginal people. They came to rely on goods from the outside world, and this gave the traders power over the Aboriginal people. As well, the trade introduced diseases that were common in Europe but unknown in North America. The Aboriginal people had no immunity to measles, smallpox, tuberculosis and whooping cough and they died in great numbers.

The worst epidemic occurred in 1862. In March, a sailor infected with smallpox arrived in Victoria aboard a sailing ship from California. The infection spread to the Aboriginal people who were camped around the outskirts of the fort. When they returned to their villages up the coast, they carried the disease with them. By summer the smallpox was passing up the rivers into the interior. For two years the epidemic raged. When it was over, about one third of all the Aboriginal people in British Columbia had died.

The spread of disease was the worst result of the contact between Europeans and Aboriginal people.

CREATING A COLONY

Even though the border between Oregon and British territory was established in 1846, the British feared that Americans might move north and claim even more territory. They decided the best way to prevent this was to send out British settlers to live on Vancouver Island.

In 1849 the British declared the island to be a British colony. The Hudson's Bay Company received control of all the trade in the area. In return, the British government asked the company to bring out settlers and pay to get them established as farmers. For the time being the mainland was left to the Aboriginal people and the few traders who lived there.

Government of the colony was in the hands of Governor James Douglas and a few officials. The British insisted that an elected government should exist. In 1856, the first elections were held. According to the law at the time, a person needed to own at least eight hectares of land to qualify for the vote.This meant that only 43 colonists could cast a ballot in the election. Seven people were elected, and on August 12, 1856, the first elected government in what would become British Columbia held its first meeting.

Colonists on Vancouver Island grew crops to feed themselves and the fur trade posts. In the north of the island, coal mines produced coal that was sold to the British navy and in San Francisco. There was also some logging and sawmilling. Otherwise, Vancouver Island was a fur-trade outpost at the far edge of the world. One person described it as “a kind of England attached to the continent of North America.” Not many settlers wanted to come to live in such an isolated spot. It was left to the Hudson's Bay Company to rule pretty much as its own private fiefdom.

GOLD RUSH!

In 1858 prospectors arrived in British Columbia to look for gold. The rush of gold seekers lasted for several years. It led to the growth of business, the construction of roads and towns, and the creation of the first government on the mainland.

FROM FURS TO GOLD

The fur trade attracted very few settlers to British Columbia. Traders were interested only in collecting furs, not in starting farms or building towns. Besides, the interior of British Columbia was a sea of mountains. There did not seem to be a lot of good land for growing crops.

It was gold that brought the first flood of newcomers to British Columbia. During the 1850s, First Nations people began bringing pieces of the precious metal to trade. They found nuggets in the gravel banks of rivers flowing through the interior. For several years prospectors had been busy in California where rich finds of gold had been discovered. The California treasure trove was playing out, however, and gold seekers were looking elsewhere for new finds. When word leaked out that gold was present in the rivers of British Columbia, it touched off a stampede of miners.

NEW ARRIVALS

The first group of gold seekers arrived at Fort Victoria by ship from San Francisco in March 1858. These men hit the jackpot when they found a rich deposit of gold in the Fraser River gravel at a place called Hill's Bar not far from Yale. When word of this discovery leaked out, the rush was on. As many as 30,000 newcomers arrived in Victoria in the space of a few months. Most were prospectors who immediately headed for the mainland. Others were business people who hoped to make a profit selling supplies. They purchased land and built stores and warehouses. Tiny Fort Victoria blossomed into an instant city. "Innumerable tents covered the ground as far as the eye could see," reported one observer. "The sound of hammer and axe was heard in every direction."

Prospectors heading for the gold fields had to cross Georgia Strait to the mainland using whatever means possible, whether it was paddlewheel steamboat, canoe, rowboat, or homemade raft. Some drowned in the headlong rush to be first to the gold. One eyewitness described the gold seekers. "Every man had his revolver and many a large knife also, hanging from a leather belt. I should say that the mining costume consists of a red shirt (flannel), blue trousers, boots to the knee and a broad brimmed felt hat, black, grey, or brown, with beard and mustache."

Once they reached the mouth of the river, they traveled upstream about 150 kilometres to the Fraser Canyon above Fort Hope where the water narrowed into a deep gorge. This was where the first gold was found, on the gravel banks and sand bars like Hill's Bar. Camps sprang up beside the river with names like Boston Bar, China Bar, Texas Bar and many others. The sleepy village of Yale became headquarters for the rush where prospectors bought supplies, banked their gold and caroused in the bars and saloons. Gamblers and thieves were as plentiful as miners, and most people slept with a gun under the pillow. In the opinion of one reporter, “a worse set of cut-throats and scoundrels never assembled anywhere.”

The First Nations people who lived in the area were not sure what to make of so many American gold seekers flooding into their land. The Fraser River between its mouth and Fort Yale was the territory of the Sto:lo people. Farther up the river beyond Yale was the territory of the Nlaka'pamux, “the people of the canyon ”. Both groups relied on the plentiful runs of salmon in the river for their livelihood. They were dismayed at the arrival of so many outsiders, who disrupted the fishery and overran their camps. The First Nations also came to believe that they should receive something in return for the gold that was in their territory. They blocked the river and drove the prospectors from their diggings. It was war, and lives were lost on both sides before peace was made.

But nothing could stop the miners, who moved like a rising tide north up the river, seeking gold in all the streams and valleys nearby. Most of all they were looking for the mother lode, the big vein of gold that was the source of all the grains and nuggets they had been collecting from the river. They traveled on the trails shown to them by the First Nations. Eventually they arrived at the Cariboo Mountains east of Quesnel where they made several of the biggest strikes. By the 1860s the Cariboo was the centre of the gold rush.

In the Cariboo, mining changed from the early days on the Fraser. Panning no longer produced most of the gold. Instead the miners began digging into the ground in search of the veins of precious ore that ran through the rock. They had to sink deep shafts and buy heavy equipment. All of this cost a lot of money. It was beyond the means of the lone prospector with not much more than a packsack of food and a pick axe. Gradually large companies bought up the mines, and prospectors became paid employees, labouring for a wage.

BUILDING THE CARIBOO ROAD

A look at the map shows that the Cariboo was a long way from the coast. Steamboats could come up the river as far as Yale, but after that it was untracked wilderness. There were no roads, and the paths used by First Nations people were steep and dangerous. Pack horses fell and broke their legs. The woods were full of bears, and the mosquitoes and black flies drove prospectors crazy. The cost of carrying supplies to the mining camps was very high

Governor James Douglas decided to build a wagon road to the gold fields. Work began at Yale, the southern end of the road, in the spring of 1862. For part of its route the road followed the Fraser River. It had to be carved out of the steep sides of the canyon walls. There was no heavy machinery. The road was built by hard labour, using explosives to blast a passage through the rock, then pick and shovel to remove the debris. Most of the work was done by Royal Engineers, a troop of soldiers sent out from England to enforce the law, survey the town sites, and build roads and bridges.

After three years of construction, the Cariboo Road reached Barkerville. It was 650 km long and cost well over $1 million to build. It greatly reduced the cost of carrying supplies to the gold fields. Travelers rattled along in stage coaches pulled by teams of horses. Every few kilometres there was a hotel, called a roadhouse, providing a meal and a bed to stay overnight.

For fifty years, a familiar sight on the road were the red stage coaches belonging to Frank Barnard's express company, known simply as “The B.X.” Barnard's stages carried mail, freight, passengers and gold, lots of gold, between Yale and Barkerville. He even had his own ranch where he raised the finest horses. In winter, sleighs replaced the stagecoach. The B.X. was considered to be the longest stage line in North America.

BARKERVILLE: CAPITAL OF THE GOLD RUSH

Gold was discovered on the banks of Williams Creek in the heart of the Cariboo Mountains in the summer of 1862. Immediately a town sprang into being. It was called Barkerville after Billy Barker, one of the miners who made the big strike.

Barkerville was a typical gold rush town. The buildings were thrown together from whatever building materials were ready at hand. There were general stores, barber shops, laundries, restaurants, blacksmiths, churches, a newspaper and a sawmill. There were also several dance halls and saloons where the miners came to spend their earnings on liquor and gambling. At one end of town was a Chinatown where the Chinese miners lived. The sidewalks were made of boards, the streets of dirt. Animals wandered among the buildings feeding on garbage.

In a short time Barkerville was the largest community north of San Francisco with a population of 10,000 during the summer mining season. But it was struck by a devastating fire. In less than two hours, most of the town was burned to the ground. One eyewitness said that the fire started when a miner tried to kiss one of the girls in a saloon, fell against a stove and sparks from the chimney set the roof ablaze. The town was rebuilt, but the highpoint of the gold rush had passed. Prospectors began to drift away to look for gold elsewhere. Barkerville became a ghost town.

In 1958 the government of British Columbia rescued Barkerville. Because it had been such an important place during the gold rush, the government decided to make it a living museum. Workers restored many of the decaying old buildings. Today the entire town looks just as it did during the rush. Visitors can chat with actors dressed up as townspeople, stop in at the local saloon, go shopping at the general store, or find out how a mine really worked.

THE OVERLANDERS

Most prospectors who hurried to the gold rush were Americans, but not all. Some made the long trip across the continent from eastern Canada. These trekkers, inspired by the hope of striking it rich in the gold fields, were called Overlanders.

In June, 1862, a group of 150 Overlanders set off from Fort Garry in Manitoba to cross the Plains. Among them was one woman, Catherine Schubert, who was traveling with her husband, Augustus, and three children. She was pregnant with a fourth child, but she refused to be left behind.

The Overlanders traveled by cart, horseback and foot. There were no roads, only dusty trails baked by the sun. Every morning they broke camp before dawn and trekked all day. Catherine carried her two babies in baskets slung over the back of a horse. Supplies had to be ferried across the many rivers on makeshift rafts. When rain came the rivers flooded, turning the prairie into a sea of mud. At the mountains, the travelers struggled up narrow trails and through deep canyons. Their supplies ran out and they had to survive on animals they killed along the way.

At last the Overlanders reached Fort Kamloops. At the First Nations village near the fort, Catherine gave birth to her baby. Then she and Augustus settled at Lillooet where they cleared a farm. While Augustus was away from home looking for gold, Catherine ran the local school and looked after the children. None of the Overlanders ever struck it rich in the gold fields, but many remained in British Columbia where they had successful careers.

CHINESE MINERS

Among the first boatload of prospectors to arrive in Victoria in 1858 were about 30 Chinese from San Francisco. These pioneers were followed by others, until by the height of the rush almost 3,000 Chinese were making a living in British Columbia, a place they called Gold Mountain. Most of them panned for gold in the creeks and riverbeds. They did not have the money necessary to sink the more permanent, underground mines.

Not all the Chinese newcomers were prospectors. Many were merchants who supplied food and supplies to the gold fields. Others ran businesses, such as laundries and restaurants. Still others worked as labourers on the Cariboo Road and other construction projects. In Victoria, Yale, Quesnel and Barkerville, they settled in their own neighbourhoods, called Chinatowns.

The Chinese suffered prejudice at the hands of White pioneers. They received lower pay for their work, and sometimes the other miners tried to keep them away from the diggings by force. But the Chinese miners were hard working. They often found gold where other miners had already given up. In time many earned enough to bring their families to live in British Columbia. These early pioneers formed the beginning of what is today the province's large Chinese community.

CREATION OF A COLONY

When the American miners first arrived, Governor Douglas worried that the gold fields might become part of the United States. To avoid this happening, the British government in 1858 declared the mainland to be a British colony. Douglas was now governor of two colonies—Vancouver Island and British Columbia.

Governor Douglas took steps to create a stable society in British Columbia. He appointed officials to enforce the laws. He built roads to the interior, and established towns. He was assisted by Judge Matthew Begbie, a stern, bearded figure who traveled from mining camp to mining camp making sure that laws were being obeyed and peace was observed. "Boys," he once told a group of miners, "I'm here to keep order and administer the law. Those who don't want law and order can git. For boys, if there is shooting, there will be hanging." They called him "The Hanging Judge", but he was respected for being honest and fair.

The colony attracted mainly men to its mining camps and fur trade posts. There was very little family life because there were so few women. Some of the newcomers took First Nations wives. But church and government leaders wanted to establish a European society in the colony. One answer was to import women from Britain. In 1862, several dozen young women arrived from London aboard two ships, called “brideships”. The plan was that they would work as servants and schoolteachers and eventually marry. Some of these women were widows whose husbands had died and left them in need. Others were working women who sought adventure or opportunity in the new colony. Still others were orphans, or young girls whose parents were too poor to look after them. In the end, most of them did marry and raise families.

The gold rush reached its peak in 1863 when about 10 tonnes of gold came out of the Cariboo creeks. After that the excitement began to cool off. Prospectors slowly began to drift away in search of other strikes, or to take up other professions.

But the gold rush changed British Columbia forever. It brought the first settlers to the mainland and led to the development of many communities. It provided customers for merchants, ranchers and farmers. A transportation network connected the interior to the coast. A legal system, a mail service and a police force were all in place. British Columbia was ready for the next stage in its development.

JOINING CANADA

Faced with a decision, people in British Columbia debated their future. Should they join the United States, or remain a colony of Great Britain? In the end they decided to join the new country of Canada that was taking shape on the other side of the mountains.

UNION OF THE COLONIES

Mainland British Columbia was created as a colony separate from Vancouver Island in 1858. The experiment soon turned out to be a failure. The construction of the Cariboo wagon road and all the other public works that followed the gold rush cost a lot of money. Both colonies were deeply in debt, and they were not attracting enough settlers to raise money from taxes or the sale of land. It seemed a waste to have the double expense of separate governments. In 1866, the colony of Vancouver Island merged with the mainland as a single colony called British Columbia.

As a colony, British Columbia was expected to provide wealth and services to Great Britain, the “Mother Country”. This was the basis of the system of colonies by which the great European powers carved up the globe. Overseas trade produced much wealth for the European economies. British Columbia, for example, produced gold and furs. It also was important for its location on the Pacific Ocean where it was a handy base for Great Britain's naval fleet. The lush forests provided timber to build ships and masts. When coal was discovered on Vancouver Island, mines were developed to provide fuel for the new steam engines that were being installed on British ships. Then, in 1862, the British navy decided to move its headquarters in the Pacific from Chile to Esquimalt, a protected harbour next door to Victoria. Ever since, Esquimalt has been an important naval base.

In return for these benefits, Great Britain paid for the defence of its colony and paid the cost of running the government. But increasingly, colonists in British Columbia grew unhappy with this arrangement. The world was changing around them. The gold was running out. The colony was deep in debt. Jobs were scarce and businesses were going broke. Colonists felt forced to make a decision about their future.

British Columbians felt that they had three options:

1. The colony was squeezed between two American territories: Oregon in the south and in the north, Alaska, purchased by the United States in 1867. Many residents were Americans by birth who had come to BC for the gold rush. The United States had a large, prosperous economy and, by 1862, a railway running right across the continent. Some British Columbians saw many advantages in becoming Americans.

2. Across the Rocky Mountains the new Dominion of Canada, created in 1867 out of four eastern provinces, was spreading across the interior. There was talk of a new railway running all the way to the Pacific. If they could make a good deal, there were advantages to becoming Canadian.

3. A small number of people wanted to leave things the way they were. These people were deeply attached to Great Britain. Many of them were officials in the old government who feared they would lose their positions under a new regime.

CONFEDERATION

The faction in favour of joining Canada was led by the fiery newspaper editor and politician, Amor de Cosmos. In 1868, he and some allies formed the Confederation League to build support for union with Canada. Their movement received a boost by the arrival of a new governor sent by the British to coax British Columbians into Confederation.

It soon became clear that most people favoured union with Canada, but not union at any price. In 1870, three delegates traveled to Ottawa to negotiate the terms under which British Columbia would become a province of Canada. They asked that Canada take over British Columbia's bulging debt and pay the new province an annual sum of money. They wanted a wagon road built across the Prairies to the west coast. And they asked for a more democratic form of government. Much to the surprise of the delegates, the Canadians not only agreed to these terms, they promised to build a railway instead of a wagon road.

Back home, the delegation was applauded for its work. Elections were held to find out how the people felt. The result was a complete victory for the supporters of Confederation, and the Canadian offer was quickly accepted. On July 20, 1871, British Columbia became Canada's sixth province.

DISEASE AND DEFIANCE

At the time of Confederation there were about 25,000 Aboriginal people living in the new province. That was far more than the non-Aboriginal population, but it was far less than the number of Aborginals who had lived there only a few years earlier. What had happened to make the number of BC's first inhabitants fall so rapidly?

In a word, the answer to that question is disease. Aboriginal people in North America had no immunity against many of the common illnesses brought to their land by Europeans. Epidemics of measles and smallpox swept away whole villages. One of the worst of the epidemics occurred in 1862. It began in Victoria where Aboriginal people from all over the coast gathered in the summer to trade and socialize. An American sailor from one of the ships was sick with smallpox and the disease spread to the Aboriginal camps. Once it was known that the camps were infected the townspeople chased away the visitors back to their villages. In this way the disease spread all over the territory, claiming thousands of lives before it finally petered out. It is estimated that this one epidemic killed one third of all the First Nations people living in British Columbia at the time.

The survivors tried to adjust to the arrival of settlers in their lands, but it was difficult. The newcomers had little respect for Aboriginal lifestyles. They did not understand how the people made their living from hunting and fishing. They did not know the deep attachment that Aboriginal people had to t